Hauser, Johannes. Brenners work was widely cited, but these salient points were often downplayed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1953. Shanghai Chronicle: Nazi Refugees in China. In The Muses Flee Hitler: Cultural Transfer and Adaptation, 19301945. 53. Musik und Musikpolitik im faschistischen Deutschland. Hitler and Goebbels continued to make references to totality until they were corrected by Rosenberg, who insisted on distinguishing between Italys total state and Germanys total movement or German state.1 As the term retreated from the spotlight in Germany, it gained prominence as an object of criticism among the exile communities in the United States and England and then became universally accepted for highlighting the similarities between Nazism and communism. But there were also broader attacks on so-called degeneracy that rejected not only the perceived elitism of Weimar culture but also its negativity: the satire, bitterness, cynicism, demoralization, and angst that characterized so many of the cultural creations in the 1920s, a time plagued by violence, lawlessness, economic insecurity, moral degradation, and national shame. Dussel, Ein heroisches Theater? . Lange, Theater in Deutschland, 218241. The play premiered in 1933 on Hitlers birthday, enjoyed huge success thereafter, garnered Johst high honors from all branches of the state and party, and led to him becoming president of the Reich Literature Chamber. Lange, Marcus. 165. Gnter Berghaus, ed., Fascism and Theatre: Comparative Studies on the Aesthetics and Politics of Performance in Europe, 19251945 (Providence, RI: Berghahn Books, 1996); Andrea Hoffend, Zwischen Kultur-Achse und Kulturkampf: Die Beziehungen zwischen Drittem Reich und faschistischem Italien in den Bereichen Medien, Kunst, Wissenschaft und Rassenfragen (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1998); Petsch, Kunst im Dritten Reich; Petsch, Alltag im Dritten Reich: Zur Alltagssthetik im faschistischen Deutschland (Cologne: Vista Point Verlag, 1994); Britta Lammers, Werbung im Nationalsozialismus: Die Kataloge der Grossen Deutschen Kunstausstellung 19371944, Schriften der Guernica-Gesellschaft 7 (Weimar: VDG, 1999); and Franz Drge and Michael Mller, Die Macht der Schnheit: Avantgarde und Faschismus oder die Geburt der Massenkultur (Hamburg: Europische Verlagsanstalt, 1995). Present arms! An Exiles Career from Budapest through Weimar to Chicago: Lszl Moholy-Nagy. In Exile, Science, and Bildung: The Contested Legacies of German migr Intellectuals, Studies in European Culture and History, edited by David Kettler and Gerhard Lauer, 75100. T O TA L I TA R IA N I SM , I N T E N T IO NA L I SM , A N D FA S C I SM 1. 4 (2007): 12361267. Studies in German Literature, Linguistics, and Culture. 186. Koonz, Claudia. In a recent conversation, Jost Hermand pointed out that the only art music composers of the 1930s and 1940s who have achieved a degree of household name status are Shostakovich and Prokofiev. Brockmann, Critical History, 184191, 193. Looking at the jarring dilemmas posed by these two events, Jarausch and Geyer observed: Though Goldhagen boldly indicted all ordinary Germans for the crimes of the Third Reich, his figures were so stereotypically Nazi, so grimly determined to do their job, so solidly part of a by-gone age, that they might as well have lived on a different planet. Das Frauenorchester in Auschwitz: Musikalische Zwangsarbeit und ihre Bewltigung. Bonn: Bouvier, 1968. . Bentwich, Rescue and Achievement, 4248; and Palmier, Weimar in Exile, 150. Zeit und Theater. appeal to the understanding of the audiences, Nazi war films attempt to suppress the faculty of understanding which might easily endanger the basis of the whole system, and then try to lead the thus reduced mind in the desired direction.138 He saw broader totalitarian devices in the Nazis ability to impose their films upon the entire German populationwith the result that within Germany proper no one can possibly escape them and in the parallels to Russian films that won the admiration of Goebbels for their capacity to diminish the importance of the individual.139 Building on the 1942 essay, From Caligari to Hitler is a highly engaging work that interweaves German history and the history of the film industry with a persistent, even nagging, leitmotif of the inevitably of Nazism. Schriften zur Musikwissenschaften und Musiktheorie III. The impact of Speers coming out was still palpable, as he had offered the first insider glimpses of the otherwise frustratingly elusive figure of Hitler, and new studies on architecture still hoped to unveil the ideological meaning of the neoclassical projects he commissioned.149 The focus on Hitlers role in the arts also expanded beyond architecture, prompting speculation that he was no mere patron of the arts, no simple presiding officer, no bureaucratic expression of the ideas of others, but the incarnation of those deep aesthetic longings that characterized the Germans.150 Further studies with an intentionalist bent looked to Hitlers role as artist and art patron, his connections to the ideological foundations of Nazi attitudes toward art, and Goebbelss vast control of the art world, which made him the second most important man in the land.151 At the same time, there were indications that the wealth of research coming out of the fifty-year commemorations was starting to raise important questions about the singularity of Nazi art, especially as the scope of inquiries looked beyond painting and architecture. 2nd ed. These intriguing paradoxes were left unresolved or, in most cases, completely ignored once Nazi film became a subject of serious inquiry, a full twenty years after Wollenbergs slim volume appeared. Yet despite the fact that he had been a vocal critic of expressionism after World War I, his postwar defense of modern art focused primarily on its revitalization.29 He insisted that expressionism had been the sole target of a propaganda campaign by Goebbels to amass support among the ignorant bourgeoisie for a full-scale attack on all artistic freedom. Cultural Aspects of National Socialism: A Research Project. Unpublished proposal, February 24, 1941. Eickhoff, Thomas. Cologne: Walther Knig, 1999. Ray, Gene. Other state and party organizations also exerted their influence on the arts, such as the German Workers Front (Deutsche What Is Known and What Is Believed 7 figure 2. . 1 (1989): 1944. To this list we can add the counterintuitive contradictions between German culture and Nazi barbarity. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum, in association with Harry N. Abrams, 1991. Sun City Anthem in 1999, and Sun City Festival in July 2006. Ideology and Excess in Nazi Melodrama: The Golden City. New German Critique 74 (Spring/Summer 1998): 125149. Jews who had managed to join the Chamber early on were systematically expelled over the course of the next several years. 7/11 - 7/11/2023 Performed by Childs Play NY students in grades 4-6.Eccentric inventor, Caractacus Potts, sets about restoring an old race car with the help of his children Multi-purpose Room 8155. J. Herz (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982), 28. Dorner was an advocate of abstract art, and his ideas influenced the curating principles of the Museum of Modern Art and promoted the widespread recognition of Buckminster Fuller.40 Those who qualified for teaching in higher education were exempted from immigration quotas,41 and this made it possible for Grosz to come to the United States to teach at the Art Students League in New York before opening his own school. 146. Lucia Sziborsky, Adornos Musikphilosophie und die Nazi-sthetik, in Die dunkle Last: Musik und Nationalsozialismus, ed. Brenners most novel insights came from her analysis of documentary evidence, revealing the competitive nature of Nazi cultural administration and the gulf between rhetoric and reality. Gleason, Totalitarianism, 81. 288 Notes to Pages 148151 66. Richard Overy, The Dictators: Hitlers Germany and Stalins Russia (London: Allen Lane, 2004), chapter 9. Gough-Yates, Kevin. Bauhaus-Moderne im Nationalsozialismus: Zwischen Anbiederung und Verfolgung. They would hardly qualify for asylum in places such as Czechoslovakia or Austria (usually the first stops on their exodus), as these countries either harbored sympathy for Germany or feared German invasionor both. 76. Clemens (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1994), 201202. In 1938, he was invited to restructure the architecture curriculum at the Armour Institute of Technology (now the Illinois Institute of Technology) in Chicago, and he brought two Bauhaus associates with him. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002. 16. Denazification: Britains Enemy Aliens, Nazi War Criminals and the Reconstruction of Post-War Europe. Sonneck, Oscar. Michael Geyer and Sheila Fitzpatrick hoped to stimulate more comparative studies in their collection of essays, Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared, published in 2009. The study of design was one of several initiatives in arts scholarship to look beyond high culture. Grosch, Nils. Rouse, John. Berlin Electropolis: Shock, Nerves, and German Modernity, by Andreas Killen 39. Most famous among these was the prestigious Prussian Academy of Arts, where the writer Gottfried Benn, who was serving as president in 1933, oversaw the maneuvers to oust Heinrich Mann, Arnold Schoenberg, Kthe Kollwitz, and others, followed by the expulsion and resignation of many more over the next five years.83 In the first year of Nazi rule, approximately eight thousand Jews were removed from cultural professions. 4 (Winter 1991): 8492. Co-opting Allens conception of the boast of the dictator and Kershaws working towards the Fhrer, we can more clearly observe how the spectacle of order, control, and authority erected a faade of a cohesive Volksgemeinschaft behind which chaos and ultimately selfdestruction were at work.152 We have already seen repeatedly how conceptions of Nazi art, architecture, music, film, and theater arising out of postwar historical accounts have camouflaged a multitude of contradictions, largely because these accounts chose to treat Nazi rhetoric as accurate accounts of the state of affairs. Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1974. . Modern Movements in Architecture. Amaury du Closel, Ersticke Stimmen: Entartete Musik im Dritten Reich, trans. Jahrhundert). 2 (1992): 295315. The End of the Third Reich: Defeat, Denazification and Nuremburg, January 1944November 1946. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. 4 (October 1996): 515532; R. C. Lutz, False History, Fake Africa, and the Transcription of Nazi Reality in Hans Steinhoff s Ohm Krueger, Literature/Film Quarterly 25, no. Prior to Stalin, however, Russian artists and intellectuals enjoyed a period of relative open-mindedness in the first fifteen years of communist rule. The Degenerate Art exhibition was meant to stand as the counterexample to the inaugural show accompanying the opening of the House of German Art. In Origins of Totalitarianism, which she began writing in 1944 and completed in 1951, Arendt proposed that the convergence of antisemitism, imperialism, and nationalism led populations to devolve into the masses, allowing demagogues to sway them. 158. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2012. However, as his experiences in the United States were exposing him to things that would permanently alter his views on culture and democracy, the Nazi phenomenon had fundamentally undermined his nostalgic sense of his own Germanness. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1994. He was a Polish Jew who escaped from the death marches and devoted the rest of his life to documenting Nazi atrocities, yet his contributions as a historian of the Holocaust remained grossly underacknowledged during his lifetime.43 In his three volumes of published documents devoted to the visual and performing arts in the Third Reich (one on visual arts, one on music, and one on theater and film), Wulf organizes his material in a way that underscores a totalitarian framework. Berg, Nicolas. Nevertheless, there were also contributions that still tended to regard propaganda and Nazi culture as carefully planned and executed programs steered by a cohort of Nazi leaders.29 I N T E N T IO NA L I SM , O L D A N D N EW The fall of communism may have resulted in a reawakening of the totalitarian paradigm, but the intentionalist paradigm needed no such reawakening in arts scholarship, as it had never been entirely dormant. Even Brecht had an opportunity to prosper in Hollywood with the success of the 1943 film Hangmen Also Die, based on the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich. Ades, Art and Power. James van Dyke, Franz Radziwill, the Art Politics of the National Socialist Regime, and the Question of Resistance in Germany, 19301939 (PhD diss., Northwestern University, 1996). See Katerina Clark and Karl Schlgel, Mutual Perceptions and Projections: Stalins Russia in Nazi Germany; Nazi Germany in the Soviet Union, in Geyer and Fitzpatrick, Beyond Totalitarianism, 427428. The first wave of purges involved hounding, dismissing, or otherwise humiliating 32 What Is Known and What Is Believed an impressive roster of influential artistic personnel, not all of them Jews. Gorlizki, Yoram, and Hans Mommsen. Each month, experts form a wide variety of fields cover various topics. Susan Manning makes the connection when she states that Totenmal can be termed protofascist . No!25 By 1925, Gustav Hartlaub celebrated new realist directions with an exhibit conspicuously titled New Objectivity: German Painting after Expressionism (Neue Sachlichkeit: Deutsche Malerei nach dem Expressionismus) the same year that Franz Roh wrote about magical realism as postexpressionist. Shearer West has problematized the entire category of expressionism by looking at its exploitation by art dealers and critics who artificially corralled artists with little in common politically or aesthetically by identifying them as expressionists and then extended the moniker to other arts. See intentionalism Stunde Null. 65. Yet, as the political tides changed, so did the accounts of how and why these architects had gone abroad. Theater unserer Zeit 28. Geniewahn: Hitler und die Kunst. Translated by Robert Greaves. Jelavichs observations on the nature of censorship dating back to the turn of the century showed that authorities had learned how censorship could backfire by drawing undue attention to its targets. Volker, Reimar. Culture in the Third Reich: Overview, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, accessed November 15, 2014, www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005207. In the wake of the Modern German Art exhibition, architects who lectured from 1946 through 1948 on the merits of modernism included Gropius, Hans Scharoun, Hugo Hring, and Curt Leonhardt,154 and Gropius and Mies were eventually elevated to the position of influential leaders in West German architecture.155 The resurrection of the Bauhaus as an institution that was not only modernist but also anti-communist required a thorough rewriting of Bauhaus history, however, that suppressed the schools outspoken advocacy of the collective over the individual and its leftist episode under director Hannes Meyer.